By
Amber Lewis
May, 20019
Introduction
Imagine a group of people so weighed down by religious persecution that they chose to flee the established borders of their country to start their lives anew in a mostly uninhabited land. This action was taken only after more than a decade of enduring abuses such as threats and acts of violence, government sanctioned extermination orders, and finally the death of their leader while under government protection. Now imagine that this story occurred in a nation that espouses the values of freedom and protection for religious liberty: The United States of America. This is how the story of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (often called by the nickname Mormons) began in 19th Century America.
Fast forward approximately one hundred and sixty-years later, and a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints is the Republican nominee for President of the United States. Ultimately losing the election to Barak Obama, Mitt Romney earned 47% of the popular vote[1] indicating his widespread acceptance and popularity across the United States. Although residual prejudices against his faith had flared during the campaign, Romney’s success indicated that the once violent conflict between Mormons and other community members had entered the post-conflict stage. This case study of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints’ journey into the post conflict stage demonstrates that interpersonal relationships along with governance practices that support equality, are one of the most significant factors in moving a conflict towards reconciliation. Although significant prejudices may persist into the post conflict stage, fair governing structures ensuring tolerance, can result in greater interpersonal contact and eventual acknowledgement of past injustices and social and cultural acceptance.
Background
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was first established in the United States in the state of New York in 1830. Throughout a period of just seventeen years, members of the Church moved from New York, to Ohio, to Missouri, to Illinois, and eventually outside of the established United States, into a portion of Mexico that would later become the territory of Utah.[2] These moves were motivated by a desire to live in peace and escape the persecutions that seemed to follow them wherever they went.[3] Speaking of their final exodus into Mexico, author Kenneth Winn notes that, “Mormons felt not so much that they had left the United States as that it had left them.”[4]
Many of the persecutions that Mormons faced occurred because of the time period in which the Church was established. Religion held a central place in society and vigilante justice was a common element. At this time in America, vigilante justice was widely accepted, and was seen as a right given within the doctrine of popular sovereignty.[5] The doctrine of popular sovereignty contributed to the founding of the United States, and rested in the belief that the people held the ultimate power in the nation. Vigilante justice often resulted when the legal process was seen as inefficient or unfair. Although the vigilante justice of the frontier is more well known, “the violence of the frontier was matched or exceeded by that of the urban areas”[6]
As a departure from traditional Christianity in several significant areas, Mormons were seen as a threat to the foundations of the beliefs and morals of many Christians in the nineteenth century. The violence that resulted was in part based in the fear of the spreading of falsehoods and the ultimate judgement of God, potentially upon friends and family members who felt drawn to the Mormons. In addition to questions about the legitimacy of their faith, members of the Church were also feared for their potential political influence as their numbers grew. From their origins in the northern area of the United States, many members of the Church espoused abolitionist values.[7] In addition, they sought friendly relations with the Native Peoples. These values threated the communities in places like Missouri, as the members of the Church grew in numbers. The fear generated by noticeable changes in society motivated much of the violence seen against Mormons and other minority groups at this time.[8]
For the members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints violence was sometimes reciprocated in defense and several instances of proactive violence, by Church members, are noted in historical records.[9] The most serious violence from members of the Church resulted in what has come to be known as the Mountain Meadows Massacre, where in 1857, at least 120 people who were part of a wagon train to California were killed by members of the Church living in Southern Utah.[10] This event occurred after members of the Church had established themselves in Utah, and was motivated, at least in part, by the fear of renewed persecutions in their new home.[11]
Moving Towards Reconciliation
The exodus of the members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints outside of the organized United States of America, provided a peace treaty of sorts between the United States and Mormons. It indicated: citizens will no longer attack and harass you as long as they do not have to have any personal dealings with you. John Paul Lederach explains peace agreements as a situation in which “the conflict has not ended. The conflict has been placed within a newly defined context where it can be pursued by other, hopefully nonviolent means[12].” For the most part, the violent conflict ceased when Mormons removed themselves from the situation, but the conflict continued in the hearts and minds of those who had been involved in the conflict. It would take more than simply space to achieve reconciliation.
The four conditions that must be met for reconciliation to proceed are proposed by Lederach to be peace, justice, mercy, and truth.[13] A component of peace had been obtained, yet it constituted only a negative peace. In his book, The Moral Imagination, Lederach explains that “the centrality of relationships accrues special meaning, for it is both the context from which cycles of violence happen and the generative energy from which transcendence of those same cycles bursts forth[14].” Without relationships, the positive peace that was ultimately hoped for between Mormons and other community members would be unable to develop.
The violence of the 19th century was exacerbated by structural elements of the time. In 1833 the Supreme Court had ruled in Barron v. Baltimore that the Bill of Rights did not extend to the states, and that it could not be used to limit state and local authority.[15] Thus, the will of the majority was often left unchecked, and affected groups were left with little legal recourse. With the passing of the 13th Amendment, ending slavery after the Civil War, changes to the federal reach of power began to be seen.[16] The 14th Amendment was ratified in 1868 and provided the protections for individual liberties defining that states could not, “deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.”[17] These structural changes set the stage for the process of reconciliation to proceed. It is worth noting that the conflict involving religions that we see in the United States today, differ from the conflict that the members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints experienced in large part because of the application of these Amendments, and the cultural acceptance of their legitimacy that has occurred over time.
Relationship Building
Though the initial separation of Mormon’s from other community members provided a necessary cooling time for the conflict, it was relationship building that broke through to the heart of the conflict. For example, many years of conflicting historical accounts regarding the Mountain Meadows Massacre, led The Church of Jesus Christ to investigate and open the historical records concerning the event. The leadership in the Church then responded with a statement of regret and desire for reconciliation.[18] In a continued effort towards reconciliation, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints currently maintains a series of monuments on the grounds where the massacre occurred. Acknowledgement is an essential part of the path towards reconciliation.[19] It enables the search for truth and often leads to a meeting place for justice and mercy. In this step of acknowledgement, the Church opened the door to build relationships in a lasting way.
Missouri was a state that was central to the violence seen between Mormons and the citizens who opposed them. In 1838 the Governor of the State of Missouri issued an order that in effect legalized the expulsion and extermination of anyone belonging to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints[20]. This order remained in effect but unnoticed until it was rescinded in 1976 by Governor Bond. In support of his actions Bond stated, “The treatment of the Mormon people in Missouri in the 1830s and beyond was barbaric. Women were raped and tortured. Men were killed by mobs or driven out of state. Their property was stolen. The lucky ones were those who were left alive with nothing and were forced to make their way into a more hospitable state."[21] This strong affirmation of accountability has set the stage for further reconciliation. Bond was recently honored at a 2010 banquet by the Mormon History Association.[22] The reciprocal acts of acknowledgement and forgiveness, are evidenced in the respect shown in these interactions.
Although it was initially a refuge, Illinois was a state where much persecution occurred culminating in the death of Joseph Smith, the first president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and subsequent exodus of the Mormons. An official acknowledgment from the State of Illinois was long in coming. In 2004 an apology was issued as a resolution from the State of Illinois.[23] It is evident that time and subsequent positive relationships have softened the conflict. At the time of the apology, Nauvoo, IL had become a hub of tourism for the state boasting more than 300,000 visitors a year[24]. This tourism is largely due to the historical sites and pageants associated with The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. We can see evidence in this situation that relationships are both the driver and mediator of conflict. Specifically, Lederach states that, “reconciliation is not pursued by seeking innovative ways to disengage or minimize the conflicting groups' affiliations, but instead is built on mechanisms that engage the sides of a conflict with each other as humans-in-relationship”[25]
Relationship building has been aided in part by the Church’s humanitarian program which has contributed more than 2.2 billion in assistance worldwide since 1985.[26] In the United States visible responses to natural disasters have given opportunities for citizens to work alongside their Mormon counterparts towards a common good. In the process, positive relationships are fostered. In addition, the Church’s extensive missionary program has ensured that many Americans have come into some contact with those representing the Church’s faith and values which are cohesive with much of mainstream America. Although differing viewpoints are acknowledged, Church leaders and missionaries often seek to emphasize similarities to traditional Christianity[27]. In addition, missionaries often engage in acts of service towards those within and without the membership of the Church. The importance of these positive encounters is emphasized by Mitchell in stating, “people do learn and change, especially if placed in an appropriate setting that encourages alteration.”[28] A setting involving common goals and cooperative efforts can be especially effective in building relationships cohesive to reconciliation. Time has also worked in favor of this reconciliation in allowing justice to be felt as satisfied in the issuance of remorse for the acts of ancestors long gone. The four components of reconciliation are present and on an official level positive peace is now evident in the situation.
Years of cooperative relationships in sustaining tourism in Illinois, and close association with the people who call themselves members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- day Saints provided a catalyst for remorse, a recognition of truth, and an acknowledgement of past wrongs to be issued. It is likely that these same relationships were the foundation for acceptance of that apology and mercy being granted. The contact hypothesis explains that hostility between groups can be lessened as a consequence of cooperative contact between groups.[29] It is important to note that not just any contact will do. Research has indicated that it is important that the adversarial groups in contact be working towards a common goal and well as enjoying equal status.[30]
Improving Governance
As previously mentioned, structural changes in the form of Amendments to the Constitution had begun to make improvements in peacebuilding by applying individual protections for minorities to the states. Although many of these protections did not appear immediately or without court battles[31], the groundwork was laid. Examples such as the enforcement of desegregation in the state of Kansas after the Brown v. Board of Education case is evidence that structural changes can result in changes in behavior and eventual cultural acceptance. In the situation seen in 19th Century America a reduction in vigilante justice due to the legitimate threat of legal recourse for victims is evidenced. Eventually these changes in behavior were instrumental in leading “through a process of habituation, to new attitudes and beliefs.”[32] Most in the U.S. society today would find the actions that occurred in situations of vigilante justice to be reprehensible and completely inappropriate. This is due social and cultural changes that were in part legitimated by necessary structural changes. Further changes promoting just governance occurred as Mormons once again became influential in the political realm.
Utah became a state in 1896 and due to the fact that Mormons made up the majority of the population of that state, dealings with them were inevitable. They would have influence in national political matters. With their re-entrance of Mormons into the political realm, the terms of the “peace agreement” were not being upheld to the satisfaction of many Americans. This was significantly evidenced by the Smoot hearings in which Reed Smoot, a leader in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, was elected as a Senator from Utah. Smoot, underwent four years (1903-1907) of investigations and congressional hearings on the basis of his faith before eventually being allowed to retain his Senate seat. [33] This period of time and the subsequent success in Smoot defending his Senate seat, proved to be significant in promoting a better form of governance in the way that the United States handles religious diversity.
The Smoot hearings provided a nationwide stage for the conflict that had been left simmering. This was the ‘moment’ when violence and hatred of the past was given the opportunity to move towards tolerance and acceptance. Utah’s statehood was the catalyst for a changing dynamic of a conflict that had moved into a stalemate as the groups in conflict had mostly been removed from interaction. With the election of representatives from Utah, the groups in conflict were forced to confront their prejudices and find a way to work together. Although Article VI of the United States Constitution already established that a religious test for office was not allowed, the practice in the U.S. up to this time showed that theology was an important aspect in achieving acceptance in Congress and nationwide.[34] One scholar defined this time as a period of change in the U.S. tied closely to the progressive feeling of the early 20th century. The Smoot hearings resulted in, “a new definition of the separation of church and state that no longer supported theology as the basis for political exclusion.”[35]
Overcoming Prejudice
This paper began by looking at the dichotomy of violence surrounding the early years of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in America and apparent post-conflict situation at the end of Mitt Romney’s campaign. The success of Senator Smoot in retaining his seat brought legitimacy, but much of the negative public opinion remained along with a lack of social and cultural acceptance. [36]Although official acknowledgement occurred prior to Romney’s campaign, resentment, prejudices, and stereotypes remained within the American populous who routinely use words such as a “cult” to describe the Church.[37] Not accepted as “Christians” by many in the religious community, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints are regarded as a religious minority in the United States. The physical violence associated with the conflict between Church members and Americans in the nineteenth century was replaced with a form of tolerance in later years. Van Dorn emphasizes that, “tolerance is only required in case of dislike, disagreement, disapproval, and thus is closely connected to differences between (groups of) people.”[38] With Mitt Romney’s campaign for the Republican nomination in 2008 and as the subsequent Republican nominee for president in 2012, the reach of that tolerance was challenged.
Gallup polls over the last 45 year have measured the acceptability of a Mormon presidential candidate. Although increases in the acceptability of many minority groups have been seen, the number of people who would not vote for an otherwise qualified candidate who is also a Mormon has remained steady at around 18% since the 1960’s, although a peak of 25 % was noted in polling during 2007, when Romney first ran for the presidential nomination.[39] This spike evidences an uncovering of prejudices that were eventually mediated to their previous levels. It is likely that this number was much higher in the early 20th century when the Smoot hearings occurred, but significant improvement has not been seen in recent years. In fact, Gallup’s analysis of the poll emphasized some of the surprising characteristic of this post-conflict situation emphasizing that the “stability of resistance to a Mormon presidential candidate over the past 45 years is an anomaly, given that resistance to a candidate who is black, a woman, or Jewish has declined substantially over the same period of time.”[40] In 2012, poll data showed that the negative response was stronger for those who did not know that Mitt Romney was a Mormon, while those who were aware of Romney’s faith were most likely to say that they would vote for a Mormon. This suggests that the influence of connecting a face to Mormonism can be influential in challenging biases, and Romney’s continued nationwide political notoriety may have softened some prejudices.
However, research by Notre Dame Professor David Campbell on the 2008 election involving Mitt Romney surprisingly found that those with moderate contact with members of the Church were most likely to be influenced by negative claims about Mormons but were not similarly influenced by positive claims. For those who indicated that they did not know a Mormon, the influence of positive and negative claims were similar. In support of the relationship hypotheses proposed here, outside information about Church members had no significant effect on those who had a close association with someone who is a member of the Church.[41] It is interesting to note that the type of relationships that were of value in continued peacebuilding were those of the interpersonal nature. Surface relationships resulted in opinions easily swayed by negative information, but unmoved by positive information. This could infer the prevalence of negative stereotypes about Mormons, that when reinforced, uncover the existence of a confirmation bias towards those negative ideas. Similarly, evidence of negative stereotypes that Mormons hold about outside community members are present in instances such as the aforementioned Mountain Meadows Massacre, and their tendency to live in tight-knit communities.[42]
Media Influence
Media has had a significant influence on the conflict. In the early days of the conflict the destruction of a printing press by members of the Church occurred after the Nauvoo City Council declared that the information that it was printing was libel.[43] Popular figures such as Mark Twain have famously perpetuated stereotypes of Mormons,[44] and more recently The popular Broadway musical, “The Book of Mormon” left many audiences laughing at some famous Mormon stereotypes. In continued efforts towards peacebuilding the Church has utilized the opportunity for increased media exposure from the popularity of this musical buy buying ad space in the playbills for “The Book of Mormon” musical, encouraging theatre goers to read the Book of Mormon with humorous slogans such as: “The book is always better” and “You’ve seen the play, now read the book.”[45] The positive response of the Church to this potential conflict opportunity brought praise from many sectors, and is an example of the type of continued peacebuilding that needs to occur in achieving reconciliation.
The Church had also attempted to use media to improve their perceptions among the public. Many examples such a commercials centered on the importance of family relationships and doctrine, and the use of social media in avenues such the “I’m a Mormon” campaign have been aimed at dispelling stereotypes.[46] The research cited above, and the resilience often seen in stereotypes would indicate that these positive campaigns will have limited effects, but could have the greatest influence among those with little to no previous contact with Mormons. Conversely, the perpetuation of stereotypes seen in examples such as the “Book of Mormon” musical will likely contribute to the confirmation bias in further reinforcing stereotypes. This effect could be mediated if, as the Church hopes, theatre goers gain an interest in learning more about Mormons and begin to develop interpersonal relations in their search. Thus, we see that positive or negative media coverage can alter or strengthen prejudices for citizens with no knowledge of the Church, but negative images may have more influence on the greater part of society. Campbell suggests that as members of the Church become less insulated from the rest of society, the positive aspects of close interpersonal contact will result in reduced prejudices.[47]
Further Peacebuilding
Although the violence that once defined the conflict between members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in gone, the psychological components of conflict are not easily overcome. The conflict between members the Church and other community members is an identity based conflict. An individual’s identity is based on many different factors and social identity is specifically based upon their connection to different social groups.[48] In the past, because of their lack of interpersonal relationships with those outside of their social group, members of the Church were unable to attain crosscutting relationships with those of varying social identities. Campbell suggests that as members of the Church become less insulated from the rest of society, the positive aspects of close interpersonal contact will result in reduced prejudices.[49]
With Romney’s rise to prominence in the Republican party, we can see the beginnings of the formation of crosscutting relationships as he gained support from those who were willing to acknowledge his social identity as a Republican instead of only as a Mormon. Mormons have more often been associated with the Republican party, and the emphasis of the larger group identity as part of a political party allowed the smaller group identity of Mormon to be accepted or at least overlooked. In fact, Democrats polled the highest in their unwillingness to vote for a qualified Mormon candidate, almost 15% above that of Republicans.[50] This indicates that a focus on encouraging groups in crosscutting relationships could be an avenue to be explored in moving from tolerance towards acceptance and a reduction of prejudices.
Conclusion
Relationship building has been shown to be the most essential part of mediating the conflict between the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and other community members. Acknowledgement of unrightable wrongs, and a movement towards governance based on fairness rather than theology, has continued to move Americans towards acceptance of those of differing faiths. The progression towards reconciliation in this conflict can be seen from the violence in the 19th Century, to the acceptance of a Mormon Senator in the 20th Century, and the nomination of a Mormon presidential candidate in the 21st Century. Although social and cultural acceptance is not complete, prejudices have shown to have been diminished by interpersonal contact between members of the Church and other community members.
From this analysis of one of the most significant examples of religious persecution in the Untied States, we can find methods to apply in moving current religious conflicts towards reconciliation. Depending on the prevalence of pre-existing stereotypes, the effect of media coverage is limited, and potentially more detrimental than beneficial. Social media was not specifically analyzed in this paper, but it is hypothesized that the increased use of any type of media in place of interpersonal relationships will not serve to reduce biases and prejudice. The desire for reconciliation should focus on bringing diverse groups together in cooperative relationships, encouraging acknowledgment of past wrongs, and a focus on just governance. The conflict between The Church of Jesus Christ and other community highlights the importance understanding that conflicts do not simply disappear with separation, even over the span of centuries of time. Cooperative, relationship building contact, is necessary to achieve reconciliation.
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Fritz, Christian G. "Popular Sovereignty, Vigilantism, and the Constitutional Right of Revolution." Pacific Historical Review 63, no. 1 (1994): 39-66. doi:10.2307/3640668.
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Heath, Harvard S. "The Reed Smoot Hearings: A Quest for Legitimacy." Journal of Mormon History 33, no. 2 (2007): 1-80. http://www.jstor.org.mutex.gmu.edu/stable/23289586.
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Korostelina, Karina V.. Social Identity and Conflict : Structures, Dynamics, and Implications, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/gmu/detail.action?docID=496118.
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Newport, Frank. Bias Against a Mormon Presidential Candidate Same as in 1967https://news.gallup.com/poll/155273/Bias-Against-Mormon-Presidential-Candidate-1967.aspx
Peterson, Daniel C., & Ricks, Stephen D. Comparing LDS Beliefs with First Century Christianity. (1988). https://www.lds.org/study/ensign/1988/03/comparing-lds-beliefs-with-firs...
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Smith, Konden R. "The Reed Smoot Hearings and the Theology of Politics: Perceiving an "American" Identity." Journal of Mormon History 35, no. 3 (2009): 118-62. http://www.jstor.org.mutex.gmu.edu/stable/23291021.
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[1] Michelle Boorstein. Poll Finds Mormons Worry About Acceptance but Embrace Differences (2012) - https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/poll-finds-mormons-worry-about-acce...
[3] Terryl Givens. By the Hand of Mormon the American Scripture That Launched a New World Religion Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
[4] Kenneth H. Winn. Exiles in a Land of Liberty : Mormons in America, 1830-1846. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. (1990), p. 11. Accessed April 15, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central
[5]Christian G. Fritz. "Popular Sovereignty, Vigilantism, and the Constitutional Right of Revolution." Pacific Historical Review 63, no. 1 (1994): 39-66. doi:10.2307/3640668.
[6] Marie H. Nelson “Anti-Mormon Mob Violence and the Rhetoric of Law and Order in Early Mormon History.” The Legal Studies Forum 21, no. 2 3 (March 22, 1997). p. 354
[7] Marie H. Nelson, "Anti-Mormon Mob Violence and the Rhetoric of Law and Order in Early Mormon History," Legal Studies Forum 21, no. 2 (1997): 353-388
[8] Marie H. Nelson “Anti-Mormon Mob Violence and the Rhetoric of Law and Order in Early Mormon History.” The Legal Studies Forum 21, no. 2 3 (March 22, 1997)
[9] Peace and Violence Among 19th -Century Latter-day Saints. (2014) https://www.lds.org/topics/peace-and-violence-among-19th-century-latter-...
[10] Mountain Meadows Massacre. https://www.lds.org/topics/mountain-meadows-massacre?lang=eng#overview
[11] Peace and Violence Among 19th -Century Latter-day Saints. (2014) https://www.lds.org/topics/peace-and-violence-among-19th-century-latter-...
[12] John Paul Lederach. The moral imagination. Oxford University Press. (2005) p. 43. https://doi.org/10.1093/0195174542.003.0000
[13] John Paul Lederach. The Moral Imagination. (2005)
[14] John Paul Lederach. The Moral Imagination. (2005) p. 34
[15] Barron v. Baltimore (1833)
[16] U.S. Constitution. 13th Amendment (1865) https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/amendmentxiii
[17] U.S. Constitution. 14th Amendment. (1868) https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/amendmentxiii
[18] Greg Hill. Expressing Regret for the 1857 Massacre. (2007). https://www.thechurchnews.com/archive/2007-09-15/expressing-regret-for-1...
[19] John Paul Lederach. Reconciliation. Building peace : sustainable reconciliation in divided societies . Washington, D.C: United States Institute of Peace Press. (1997)
[20] Extermination Order Rescinded. (1976). https://www.lds.org/study/ensign/1976/09/news-of-the-church/extermination-order-rescinded?lang=eng
[21] R. Scott Lloyd. Former Missouri Governor Honored For Rescinding Mormon 'extermination Order' – (2010) https://www.deseretnews.com/article/700036138/Former-Missouri-governor-h...
[22] Extermination Order Rescinded. (1976). https://www.lds.org/study/ensign/1976/09/news-of-the-church/exterminatio...
[23] Melissa Sanford. Illinois Tells Mormons It Regrets Expulsion. (2004) https://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/08/us/illinois-tells-mormons-it-regrets-...
[24] Melissa Sanford. Illinois Tells Mormons It Regrets Expulsion
[25] John Paul Lederach. Reconciliation. Building peace : sustainable reconciliation in divided societies . Washington, D.C: United States Institute of Peace Press. (1997) p. 26
[26] 2018 LDS Charities Annual Report. https://www.ldscharities.org/pages/2018-lds-charities-annual-report
[27] Daniel C. Peterson &Stephen D. Ricks. Comparing LDS Beliefs with First Century Christianity. (1988). https://www.lds.org/study/ensign/1988/03/comparing-lds-beliefs-with-first-century-christianity?lang=eng
[28] Christopher Mitchell. The nature of intractable conflict : resolution in the twenty-first century . (2014) p. 269. Basingstoke ;: Palgrave Macmillan.
[29] Bordens, K. S., & Horowitz, I. A. (2001). Social Psychology (Vol. 2nd ed). Mahwah, N.J.: Psychology Press. Retrieved from http://mutex.gmu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?di...
[30] Bordens, K. S., & Horowitz, I. A. (2001). Social Psychology (Vol. 2nd ed). Mahwah, N.J.: Psychology Press.
[31] Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
[32] Christopher Mitchell (2014). The nature of intractable conflict : resolution in the twenty-first century . Basingstoke ;: Palgrave Macmillan. (2014) p.270
[33]Konden R. Smith. "The Reed Smoot Hearings and the Theology of Politics: Perceiving an "American" Identity." Journal of Mormon History 35, no. 3 (2009): 118-62. http://www.jstor.org.mutex.gmu.edu/stable/23291021.
[34] U.S. Constitution. Article VI. https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articlevi
[35] Konden R. Smith. "The Reed Smoot Hearings and the Theology of Politics: Perceiving an "American" Identity." Journal of Mormon History 35, no. 3 (2009). p. 161
[36] Harvard S. Heath. "The Reed Smoot Hearings: A Quest for Legitimacy." Journal of Mormon History 33, no. 2 (2007): 1-80. http://www.jstor.org.mutex.gmu.edu/stable/23289586.
[37] Boorstein, Michelle. Poll Finds Mormons Worry About Acceptance but Embrace Differences (2012)
[38]Marjoka van Doorn. The nature of tolerance and the social circumstances in which it emerges. (2014) p. 907. Current Sociological Review, 905-927
[39] Frank Newport. Bias Against a Mormon Presidential Candidate Same as in 1967. (2012) https://news.gallup.com/poll/155273/Bias-Against-Mormon-Presidential-Can...
[40]Frank Newport. Bias Against a Mormon Presidential Candidate Same as in 1967. (2012) https://news.gallup.com/poll/155273/Bias-Against-Mormon-Presidential-Candidate-1967.aspx
[41] David Campbell et al. The Stained Glass Ceiling: Social Contact and Mitt Romney’s ‘Religion Problem.’” Political Behavior 34, no. 2 (June 2012): 277–299.
[42] David Campbell et al. The Stained Glass Ceiling: Social Contact and Mitt Romney’s ‘Religion Problem.’” Political Behavior 34, no. 2 (June 2012): 277–299.
[43] History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints volume VI (1912), pp. 430-432. The council met on June 8 and June 10 to discuss the matter.
[44] Joel J Campbell, and Kristoffer D Boyle. “Artemus Ward: The Forgotten Influence of the Genial Showman’s Mormon Lecture on Public Opinion of Mormons in the United States and Great Britain.” Journal of Popular Culture 50, no. 5 (October 1, 2017): 1107–1126. http://search.proquest.com/docview/1961395103/.
[45] Morgan Jones. How the LDS Church's response to 'The Book of Mormon' musical is actually working. (2016) https://www.deseretnews.com/article/865667313/How-the-LDS-Churchs-response-to-The-Book-of-Mormon-musical-is-actually-working.html
[46] Laurie Goodstein. Mormons’ Ad Campaign May Play Out on the ’12 Campaign Trail. New York Times. (2011)
[47] David Campbell et al. The Stained Glass Ceiling: Social Contact and Mitt Romney’s ‘Religion Problem.’” Political Behavior 34, no. 2 (June 2012): 277–299.
[48] Karina V. Korostelina. Social Identity and Conflict : Structures, Dynamics, and Implications, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/gmu/detail.action?docID=496118.
[49] David Campbell et al. The Stained Glass Ceiling: Social Contact and Mitt Romney’s ‘Religion Problem.’” Political Behavior 34, no. 2 (June 2012): 277–299.
[50] Frank Newport. Bias Against a Mormon Presidential Candidate Same as in 1967. (2012) https://news.gallup.com/poll/155273/Bias-Against-Mormon-Presidential-Can...